Possible health risks associated with nanostructures in food

Both organic and inorganic nanostructures have the potential to improve the quality, nutritional values, and safety of food. However, nanostructures have unique properties that induce potential health risks. Nanostructures can enter into the body using different routes such as inhalation, gastrointestinal tract, and dermal. The biological fate of nanostructures and different biological responses after entrance of the nanostructures into the human body are described in this chapter. The adverse health effect of nanostructures (especially inorganic nanostructures or indigestible organic nanostructures) is related to the direct or indirect interaction of nanostructures with biological systems. Prolonged exposure and high concentration of nanostructures can adversely affect the antioxidant defense system and induce the oxidative stresses. Oxidative stress can result in DNA damage and ultimately apoptosis. Oxidative stress in cells also can lead to the other mechanisms related to adverse health effect of nanostructures such as inflammation, genotoxicity, epigenetic modification, endoplasmic reticulum stress, and autophagy dysfunction. Risk assessment of the nanostructures can provide scientific information about their safety and toxicity and also give us some recommendations about the use of nanostructures in food products.