A review of greener approaches for rare earth elements recovery from mineral wastes

The use of rare earth elements (REE) in many various fields, including high-tech products, increases the demand for these materials day by day. The production of REE from primary sources has expanded in response to increasing demand; however, due to its limited, a more sustainable supply is also started to offer for the REE demand by using secondary sources. The most commonly used metallurgical method for REE recovery is hydrometallurgical processes. However, it has some disadvantages, like pyrometallurgical methods. In the review, studies of the environmental impacts of REE production from primary sources and life cycle assessments of products containing REE were investigated. According to the results, it has been seen that those studies in the literature in which hydrometallurgical methods have changed to more environmentally friendly approaches have begun to increase. In this review, mine wastes, which are secondary sources, were defined, conventional methods of recovery of rare earth elements were discussed, greener approaches to the recovery of REE from these sources were comprehensively examined and studies in the literature were evaluated. Furthermore, it was stated that there are limited studies on green approaches and REE recovery from mineral wastes and that this field is developing with an emphasis on the current outlook and future perspectives.