Nanomaterial-Based Electrochemical Microdevices for Rifampicin Sensing: A Focused Review

Rifampicin (RIF) remains a cornerstone of tuberculosis therapy; however, its clinical efficacy is highly dependent on achieving optimal systemic exposure, supporting the need for rapid and reliable monitoring approaches in therapeutic drug management. Conventional analytical techniques are often laboratory-bound, time-consuming, and unsuitable for decentralized or real-time applications. In this context, nanomaterial-enabled electrochemical sensing has emerged as a promising strategy for integration into biomedical microdevices, offering rapid response, low sample consumption, and compatibility with miniaturized platforms. This review provides a focused and critical evaluation of recent advances in nanomaterial-based electrochemical interfaces for RIF detection, with particular emphasis on their suitability for incorporation into portable and microfluidic device architectures. Carbon nanostructures, metal and metal-oxide nanomaterials, MXenes, metal–organic frameworks, molecularly imprinted polymers, and hybrid biosensing systems are systematically compared in terms of their structure–property-performance relationships and their ability to enhance electron-transfer kinetics, adsorption behavior, and electrocatalytic activity. Beyond analytical performance metrics such as detection limits and linear dynamic range, the review highlights key parameters governing device-level implementation, including surface stability, anti-fouling properties, reproducibility, and compatibility with complex biological matrices. Importantly, we discuss current progress toward integrating these sensing platforms into miniaturized and point-of-care systems, including screen-printed electrodes, flexible substrates, and microfluidic-assisted analytical devices. Remaining challenges-such as long-term operational stability, inter-device reproducibility, and clinical validation-are critically addressed. By bridging the gap between nanomaterial-based sensor development and biomedical microdevice engineering, this work provides a practical framework for advancing RIF detection technologies toward potential real-world diagnostic and therapeutic monitoring applications.