Interaction of sustainable development goals from an environmental perspective

Understanding the interrelationships among Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is essential for addressing interconnected environmental challenges. This study examines the complex links among SDG 13 (Climate Action), SDG 14 (Life Below Water), and SDG 15 (Life on Land) using a systems-based approach. We develop a hybrid analytical framework that integrates Tree-Augmented Bayesian Networks (BN-TAN), Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), and Importance–Performance Map Analysis (IPMA) to identify structural, probabilistic, and performance-based interactions across all SDGs. Using global SDG indicator data, the analysis uncovers influential pathways, leverage points, and performance gaps that shape environmental outcomes. Results highlight SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) as the most critical driver across all three environmental goals and reveal notable trade-offs, including negative associations between SDG 3 and SDGs 13 and 15. By combining quantitative modeling with policy-relevant interpretation, the study offers actionable insights to support integrated environmental governance.