From risk to action: benchmarking two generations of national climate adaptation policies in the Netherlands, UK, USA, Türkiye, and Portugal

Climate change adaptation has become a central concern for national governments as extreme weather events and systemic risks intensify globally. This article investigates whether national climate adaptation plans in five countries—The Netherlands, the United Kingdom, the United States, Türkiye, and Portugal—represent a shift from a first generation of scenario-based strategies to a second generation of action-oriented, cross-sectoral frameworks. Employing a multiple correspondence analysis and a benchmarking approach, the study evaluates key dimensions of national adaptation plans, including risk definition, strategic priorities, governance scales, sectoral integration and barriers of implementation. The findings suggest a partial transition toward second-generation planning, particularly in countries like the Netherlands and the United Kingdom which have longer adaptation histories. However, persistent gaps in local integration, institutional coordination, and cross-sectoral coherence remain. This research contributes to understanding the evolution of national climate adaptation plans-strategies and offers insights for enhancing the robustness and effectiveness of future policies.