Enhancing human−machine interaction safety for maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) navigation in coastal sea voyage

The growing incorporation of maritime autonomous surface ships (MASS) into maritime transport poses significant challenges for maintaining safe navigation. The aim of this article is to perform a detailed systematically safety assessment for MASS (degree 3) navigation in coastal voyage. In order to achieve this purpose, standardised plant analysis risk–human (SPAR-H) and evidential reasoning (ER) are used for methodically assessing the probability and impacts of navigation-related failures due to system constraints, diminished automation efficiency and remaining human−machine participation in shore control centres. Whilst SPAR-H offers a systematic approach to measure the performance shaping factor (PSF) and assess safety level, the ER facilitates the integration of incomplete, conflicting and diverse evidence related to MASS navigation operational tasks. The findings of the research show that task MFD2 has the highest failure probability (8.061E-02) and consequently presents the least safety level. Besides its robust theoretical background, this article will provide the utmost theoretical and practical contributions to ship owners, ship designers, safety researchers, safety inspectors and regulatory bodies by enhancing navigational safety and offering practical guidance for improving MASS design, operational procedures and regulatory compliance.